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In psychology〔Tyrrell, G. N. M. (1943), ''Apparitions''. London: Gerald Duckworth.〕 and parapsychology, an apparitional experience is an anomalous, quasi-perceptual experience. It is characterized by the apparent perception of either a living being or an inanimate object without there being any material stimulus for such a perception. The person experiencing the apparition is awake, excluding dream visions from consideration. In scientific or academic discussion, the term ''apparitional experience'' is to be preferred to the term ''ghost'' in respect of the following points: # The term ''ghost'' implies that some element of the human being survives death and, at least under certain circumstances, can make itself perceptible to living human beings. There are other competing explanations of apparitional experiences. # Firsthand accounts of apparitional experiences differ in many respects from their fictional counterparts in literary or traditional ghost stories and films (see below). # The content of apparitional experiences includes living beings, both human and animal, and even inanimate objects.〔See, for example, Sir Ernest Bennett's ''Apparitions and Haunted Houses'' (London: Faber and Faber, 1939).〕 == History of the concept == Attempts to apply modern scientific or investigative standards to the study of apparitional experiences began with the work of Edmund Gurney, Frederic W. H. Myers and Frank Podmore,〔Gurney, E., Myers, F.W.H. and Podmore, F. (1886). ''Phantasms of the Living'', Vols. I and II. London: Trubner and Co.〕 who were leading figures in the early years of the Society for Psychical Research (founded in 1882). Their motive, as with most of the early work of the Society,〔Sidgwick, Eleanor; Johnson, Alice; and others (1894). Report on the Census of Hallucinations, London: ''Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research'', Vol. X.〕 was to provide evidence for human survival after death. For this reason they had a particular interest in what are known as ‘crisis cases’. These are cases in which a person has a quasi-perceptual experience of someone at a distance at the time of that person’s death or other crisis. If the temporal coincidence of the crisis and the distant apparitional experience cannot be explained by any conventional means, then the presumption is made that some as yet unknown form of communication, such as telepathy (a term coined by Myers〔Myers, F.W.H. (1903). ''Human Personality and its Survival of Bodily Death''. London: Longmans Green. Reissued: Charlottesville, VA: Hampton Roads, 2002〕) has taken place. While the extent to which the work of Gurney and his colleagues succeeded in providing evidence for either telepathy or survival of death is still controversial, the large collection of firsthand written accounts which resulted from their painstaking methods still constitutes a body of valuable data concerning the phenomenology of hallucinations in the sane. A notable later discussion of apparitional experiences was that of George N. M. Tyrrell,〔Tyrrell, G N M. 1943〕 also a leading member of the Society for Psychical Research of his day. Tyrrell accepted the hallucinatory character of the experience, pointing out that it is virtually unknown for firsthand accounts to claim that apparitional figures leave any of the normal physical effects, such as footprints in snow, that one would expect of a real person.〔Tyrrell,(1943), ''Apparitions''. London: Gerald Duckworth, pp.53-60.〕 However, Tyrrell develops the idea that the apparition may be a way for the unconscious part of the mind to bring to consciousness information that has been paranormally acquired – in crisis cases, for example. He introduces an evocative metaphor of a mental ‘stage-carpenter’,〔Tyrrell, G. N. M. (1943), ''Apparitions''. London: Gerald Duckworth, pp.101-103.〕 behind the scenes in the unconscious part of the mind, and constructing the quasi-perceptual experience that eventually appears on the stage of consciousness, so that it embodies paranormal information in a symbolic way, a person drowning at a distance appearing soaked in water, for example. The study and discussion of apparitions developed in a different direction in the 1970s, with the work of Celia Green and Charles McCreery.〔Green, C., and McCreery, C. (1975). ''Apparitions''. London: Hamish Hamilton.〕 They were not primarily interested in the question of whether apparitions could shed any light on the existence or otherwise of telepathy, or in the survival question; instead they were concerned to analyse a large number of cases with a view to providing a taxonomy of the different types of experience, viewed simply as a type of anomalous perceptual experience or hallucination. One of the points that was highlighted by their work was point (2) listed above, namely that ‘real-life’ accounts of apparitional experiences differ markedly from the traditional or literary ghost story. These are some of the more notable differences, at least as indicated by their own collection of 1800 firsthand accounts: * Subjects of apparitional experiences are by no means always frightened by the experience; indeed they may find them soothing or reassuring at times of crisis or ongoing stress in their lives.〔Green, C., and McCreery, C. (1975). ''Apparitions''. London: Hamish Hamilton, pp. 200-203.〕 * Spontaneous apparitional experiences tend to happen in humdrum or everyday surroundings, and under conditions of low central nervous system arousal, most often in the subject’s own home - while doing housework, for example. By contrast, subjects who visit reputedly haunted locations in hopes of ‘seeing a ghost’ are more often than not disappointed.〔Green, C., and McCreery, C. (1975). ''Apparitions''. London: Hamish Hamilton, p. 123.〕 * Apparitions tend to be reported as appearing solid and not transparent; indeed they may be so realistic in a variety of ways as to deceive the percipient as to their hallucinatory nature; in some cases the subject only achieves insight after the experience has ended.〔Green, C., and McCreery, C. (1975). ''Apparitions''. London: Hamish Hamilton, pp. 150-155.〕 * It is unusual for an apparitional figure to engage in any verbal interaction with the percipient; this is consistent with the finding that the majority of such experiences only involve one sense (most commonly the visual).〔Green, C., and McCreery, C. (1975). ''Apparitions''. London: Hamish Hamilton, pp. 95-101.〕 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「apparitional experience」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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